Great King and Poet ..Musician ..The Utopian King God Bless him

I would say the times of Akbar were great. Without discounting sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah i can add here that successive rulers of the Bahamani kingdoms continued to revere goddess saraswati. What liberal times and how great were the kings who ruled India !

Sometimes I seriously wonder if it is a Shia/Sunni thing and an importnat point of research. The most liberal dynasties to rule were all Shia - Adil Shahs, Qutub Shahs and Nawabs of Lucknow. Similarly the liberal Salar Jungs of Hyderabad were Shia too. I haven't come across a single reference to a Shia dynasty who were cruel to Hindus.

is it a coincidence or does it have any theological reasons? I wonder why no one has researched this?

@Akshay: Indeed it is a very succint and thought provoking observation which is worthy of re-search. @Amita: With all due respect to the Shias , I would say that a certain segment of Sunnis were and are not lacking in refinement. sophestication is certainly not the preserve of the Shias alone. But your over-all observation is correct.

@Akshay, @Ameeta - You have a point about Shia rule extending the law to a wider polity: perhaps it was because they were a minority among both Hindus and Muslims. Some history books say that Dara Shikoh, eldest son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, had the Mahabharata (includes Bhagavad Gita) translated into Persian and it was similar to the Islamic message about vice and virtue? The Sunni orthodox party, scared about the difficulty of continuing their elite status, backed Aurangzeb for the throne - and Shah Jahan got dethroned and imprisoned before is death. I wonder if Dara Shikoh's translation of the Mahabharata is still available.

Basically Shia's come from persian region-which was very sophisticated culture before Muslim invasion nd conversion-that lineage most of the shia's carry and some of my best friends are shia's too.

Mr Rahmani: It was Emperor Akbar who had the Mahabharat translated into Persian. Prince Dara Shikoh had the Upnishads translated. The royal Moghul families included Sunnis, Shias, and Rajputs and made no distinction - but they adhered officially to the Sunni persuasion. The only branch of Sunnis that is fanatically orthodox is Wahhabism which never developed roots in India. On the other hand, the liberal Sufi branch of Sunnis gained much favor and continues to be popular even today. That the Shia branch is connected to Iran has nothing to do with the liberalism of the great Shia rulers - it was more so because of the South Indian culture which has always been more tolerant and liberal. Iran, today, cannot be considered liberal by any stretch of imagination.

Thanks...and good to see you back Asad Ahmed. : )

@Qamar Rehmani and Janab Asad Ahmad : Not only the Mahabharata but even the Ramayana was translated during Dara Shikoh's time into Persian and Arabic. It is very much available in the Rampur library.Arabic classics like 'Adventures of Amir Hamza' got translated into Urdu at a later stage and the characters became Indianised absolutely.With Hindu names of few characters and most wearing Indian clothes and the hero battling tigers and even dragons.This classic was illustrated during the time of emperor Akbar the great. It may surprise a lot of people but the largest conversions in India happened owing to Sufi activity in India and not as a result of Aurangzeb's sword as is the popularly held belief.The largest conversions have happened during the late 18th and early 19th centuries while Aurangzeb died in 1707 A.D. If proselytisation had been an instrument of state policy under the Mughals the area around the imperial capitals of Agra and Delhi should today be teeming with Muslims which is not true.Actually Muslims abound on the periphery of the Mughal empire: Deccan, Kashmir, Bengal (today's Bangladesh) and what is now Pakistan. Mughal empire was one of the greatest that the world has ever seen. It attracted the world's best available talent to India then just as America does today. Cultural synthesis was accelerated during Mughal period because the Mughals married out-side their faith and allowed their wives to not only retain their faith but even indulged in Hindu and Shia festivals.The palace of Jodhbai at Fatehpur Sikri is the most imposing structure in the entire fort-palace complex with temple bells carved and a huge pot of Tulsi occupying the central court-yard.Among all Sunni Muslim dynasties who ruled India the Mughals were the most liberal and hence the most popular. Akbar prostrated before a oil painting of mother Mary presented to him by the Portuguese priests and the priests did not know how to react ! He did Surya namaskar in the morning by offerring water to Surya Narayan and none of the Mughal children after Jehangir were circumcised.This is contained in the Portuguese memoirs of the period. The tabla, Sitar and scores of Raag, Raaginis in the Hindustani classical music along with Holi, Sawan , Qaul, Qawwali are Mughal contributions. So are jalebis, gulab-jamuns and balushahi !!! The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar used to compose poetry in Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Punjabi and Brij bhasha.At least 17 people of his court were poets with published Diwans to their credit. The mutineers in 1857 who were largely of Brahmin and Rajput stock from UP had approached the last Mughal emperor for aid to over-throw the British.They clearly considered their faith safer under a Mughal emperor than under the British.When the emperor expressed his helplessness to offer any military and financial aid......history records that the mutineers knelt down before him and asked them to at least bless them.The last Mughal emperor gave ashirwad individually to each kneeling HINDU mutineer.....something the twice born/ high born indoctrinated Brahmins of UP will today be ashamed to acknowledge who form the back-bone of the PAC ! But it is plain that Shia dynasties have traditionally been more tolerant towards Hindu subjects and have attempted to adopt local culture more than Sunnis by any day.The nawabs of Lucknow used to themselves play the characters of Indra and Krishna in the plays staged in the Kaiser bagh.Even named their platoons "baanka" The Adil Shahi and Qutub Shahi dynasties were the most liberal in the Deccan is a point of fact.Goddess Saraswati being revered by them is something which is un-thinkable else-where in the Muslim world. Such aspects of cultural synthesis need to be highlighted before the bigots of both faiths today.The Muslims of the Indian sub-continent today comprise of 65 % Muslim population on the planet.Their culture is unique on account of free inter-mingling with the Hindus.The taking out of Taziyas , singing of Qaul, Manqabat, Naat and Qawwalis is peculiar to the Indian sub-continent. So is the practice of Tabarrukh in the various Sufi shrines. The Sufi saints of Kashmir are to this day called 'Rishis' which is a decidedly Hindu word for a realised saint. Indian Islam is unique in the world and world heritage. Steps should be taken to preserve it from the Wahabi on-slaught at all events.

Thank you Digvijay Singh Kushwaha....Such an exhaustive and interesting post!! The last sentence is most pertinent today...

Thank you, Subbiah. I am impressed by the in-depth and balanced analysis of Mr Digvijay Singh Kushwaha. Dara Shikoh may have translated the Mahabharat too, as he points out. Akbar had done it earlier but I am not sure if the project was completed. In many respects, Dara resembled Akbar rather closely. Anyway, I like Mr Singh's write-up. One point that he missed about the 'mutiny' is that Bahadur Shah had also outlawed cow slaughter in deference to the wishes of his Hindu subjects. Actually the Sunni rulers (like Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and technically Akbar) have been as liberal as the Shia rulers. Too often, people use Aurangzeb as an example of Sunni bigotry without realizing that he was an oddity- a manipulative and deceitful person - who used the Sunni sect only to promote his wicked designs. While writing about the Moghuls, I was saddened to read that during their decline, Akbar's body armor, his favorite books (although he could not read), and his royal garments - that had been carefully stored beside his grave in Sikandra - were destroyed by the Bharatpur jats. It would have been nice to see them today!

A Long back historical fact written in Chachnama that Raja Dahir sen (Hindu Ruler of Sindh) has given shelter to "Muhammad Bin Allaf" who was a close associate of Imam Hussain against Ummayad Caliphate just after the Karbala Incident. Some sources even says that Raja Dahir have offered Asylum to even Imam Hussain (The Grand Son of Prophet Muhammad PBUH) before karbala incident. It may be an initial reason for tolerance among Hindus and Shias.

Its not only about Indian muslims, Muslims across the world Indonesia, Egypt, Turkey, Iran all have assimilated with their local cultures. To give you an example, in Turkey, all mosques are blue instead of traditional green. I asked the scholar over there about this. He informed me that originally "Turkic" people of central asia worshiped the sky, hence blue was their sacred colour. When they became muslims, they continued to regard blue as sacred. The main festival in Iran is Navroze or the Persian New Year. This is same as Parsi or Zorastrian new year. It has nothing to do with Islam. Thus, Iranian continued to maintain their old pre-islamic traditions. What people attribute to Islam is actually "Wahabiism" which has emerged from Saudi Arabia. Wahabism is the worst thing that has happened to Islam since the sack of Baghdad by Mongols but that is another long story .................

Urdu blossommed in the deccan under the deccani Shia Kingdoms.The adab in Urdu is un-parallelled. It is India's most price-less heritage more besh-keemti than the Koh-i-noor or the Taj Mahal. It came later to the Persian-loving north. If only Pakistan had not declared it their national language or if it's script was not Arabic it may have survived in India even today.In any case it is heartening to note that the Urdu hinterland has moved down south (to AP and Karnataka) again from Delhi,UP and Bihar. Life has come full circle Not only were Sanskrit religious and non-religious scriptures were translated into Persian and Arabic but the Koran was also translated into Sanskrit under the great Mughals Whether it is the use Henna/Mehendi (such elaborate floral designs on hands and feet of the bride do not exist any-where else on the planet),the wearing of frock-coats (achkan and sherwani by the groom) in our marriages, jadau Zewar (gem-studded jewellry) and arms (studded sword and dagger handles),domes in our temples (Pre-Islamic temples in India were zigurrat and pagoda-shaped, as they still are in South India), tye-and-dye fabic,Hand-bloc printed fabric, glass bangles, Meenakari( gold and silver enammeling, Kundan in jewellry,canon-making,watering of swords, falconry,development of Zari and 'cloth of Gold' Gota Patta,salma, sitara, zardozi,Muslim Kasheeda-kaari techniques and chikan-kari on fabric,Persian carpet making (Kashmir ,Muzaffarpur in UP and Jaipur in Rajasthan), Taarkashi, ivory carving and inlay ,pietra-dura (semi-precious stone inlay),hamaams and steam baths, smoking of hookah,quilt making , blue pottery (only pottery in the world which is made without clay),laying of cypresses and lay-out of gardens ( based on the belief that Paradise in Islam is a beautiful garden), scalloped arches in our architecture,animal husbandry especially introduction of Arabian horses in India and also Mongolian breeds,tandoori food, flavouring of food with Saffron (which is native of Spain), Kewra, khus,peculiar and enchanting methods of smoking food as developed under the Muslim rule in India,Indian miniature painting (Jehangir introduced the concept of fore-shortening in Indian painting techniques in which near and far objects could be painted in perspective,through Abdus Samad whom he brought from Iran), the art of paper machie in Kashmir, use of 'heeng' (asofetida which came from Central Asia) the use of saunf (which came from Egypt) in our food, kathak as a only classical dance form of the north that developed under the Mughals and the Nawabs of Lucknow (Even today there are two principal schools of Kathak the Jaipur and the Lucknow gharan),the contribution in the field of music both intrumental and vocal, 'soz-khwani' as developed in Lucknow.Singing of thumri, daadra, gul, qaul, qawwalli, ......................................................... ........................................................ and so on and so forth...........the Muslim contri-bution to India's culture is awesome and in-calculable.

@Asad Ahmed:The place where the golden temple of the Sikhs stands today was donated by the Akbar.He gave liberal grants to temples across north India and so did all Mughal emperors even Aurangzeb who turned a philistine only in the latter part of his reign. The most fascinating thing that will hit you if you go to Sikandra which is emperor Akbar's mausoleum is two large swastikas in stone inlay on the main gateway.Yes sadly the monument was vandalised by the Jats of Bharatpur where the spoils of their looted booty still stand shamelessly in their palaces.

Nice 1

@Akshay Chavhan: Blue (especially azure and turquoise) are as much Muslim colours as green.)Till date in India we do not have a Hindi or local equivalent of Firozi. You will find blue mosques and Imam-bargahs all over the middle east and also in Jeruselum all the way upto Marakkeh in Morocco .In fact the only mosque in the world made entirely of blue pottery stands in Tehran today. The art of blue-pottery is extinct there but exists in Jaipur India.It is the only pottery in which clay is not used. Quartz is. The various king-doms of Rajasthan (especially Jaipur) and so also Awadh offerred asylum to the practicioners of such fabulous art-forms which either had blossomed or had found patronage in the Mughal courts of Delhi when Aurangzeb turned a philistine in the latter half of his reign and chased them away. Indeed Muslim rulers adopted local cultures in all places where-ever they ruled that observation of yours is absolutely correct Wahabism is attacking the heart of Islam which is Sufism calling them 'kabrr parastish karnay walay' which is absurd. It has to be repulsed tooth and nail.

@Manoj Bishnoi Imam Hussain (A.S.) had said that the Muslim faith would not have met the fate it did had he been in India.No Muslim came to his aid only Hindus did. At the time of the battle of Karbala around 1400 Hindus stayed in Baghdad alone.You can read my contribution too dated 8th January. Pls read the link below: Brahmins Fought for Imam Hussain in the Battle of Karbala. By Rakesh Sharma: http://smma59.wordpress.com/2007/09/19/brahmins-fought-for-imam-hussain-in-the-battle-of-karbala/

@Manoj Bishnoi: Here is more stuff as glaened from the Times of India Sunil Dutt, the famous Hussaini Brahmin migrated from what is now Pakistan. Hussaini Brahmins: The presence in Arabia of many Hindus, mostly Brahmins, before the rise of Islam, has been recorded by the historian Sisir Kumar Mitra, in his book ‘The Vision of India’, page 183. These people observed Hindu religious customs, including the worship of Shiva and Makresha from which the name of Mecca is said to have been derived. The famous astrologer Yavanacharya was born of one such Brahmin family. It was from these Brahmins that the Arabs learnt the science of Mathematics, Astrology, Algebra and decimal notation which were first developed in India. At the time of the war of Karbala (Oct. 680 AD), Rahab Sidh Datt, a potentate of Datt sect, was a highly esteemed figure of Arabia due to his close relations with the family of Prophet Mohammed. In the holy war when no Muslim King came to help Hussain,. Rahab fought On his side and sacrificed his seven sons (named Sahas Rai. Haras Rai, Sher Khan, Rai Pun, Ram Singh, Dharoo and Poroo) in the bloody war. The participation of the Mohyals Brahmins and more precisely that of a Dutt family living in Arabia(Iraq) at that time, in the holy war, is a fact of the history. An ancestor of Rahab named Sidh Viyog Datt assumed the title of Sultan and made Arabia (old name Iraq) his home. He was a tough and tenacious fighter. He was also known as Mir Sidhani. He was a worshipper of Brahma. He was the son of the stalwart Sidh Jhoja (Vaj) who was a savant and saint lived in Arabia (Iraq) around 600 AD. The supporters of Hassan and Hussain honoured the Datts with the title of ‘Hussaini Brahmin’ and treated them with great reverence in grateful recognition of the supreme sacrifices made by them in the war of Karbala. According to Jang Nama, written by Ahmed Punjabi, pages 175-176, it was ordained on the Shias to recite the name of Rahab in their daily prayer. At the time of the Karbala, fourteen hundred Hussaini Brahmins lived in Baghdad alone. TIMES of INDIA Hindus participate in Muharram21 Jan 2008, Faizan Ahmad MUZAFFARPUR: On the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of Islamic calendar, Shia Muslims across the world spend the day in mourning to commemorate the 1327-year-old martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain, his family and followers. Here on Sunday, a group of Hindus participated in the Muharram procession with equal veneration. They claim their lineage to Hussaini Brahmin sect. And, from this year, they have revived their centuries-old tradition of shedding tears in the memory of the martyrs of Karbala -- which their ancestors used to do. Mostly Bhumihars, the group marched barefoot from Bara Imambara in Brahampur locality here beating their chest and chanting "Ya Hussain". They also carried a banner proclaiming their sentiments towards the Imam and his martyrdom. "Our ancestors also fought in support of Imam Hussain and sacrificed their lives in Karbala and we are equally pained at the historical martyrdom," said Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha convenor Arun Kumar Sharma. References in several books and records confirm that some Hindus did join Imam Hussain, the grandson of Prophet Mohammad, when he was through a bloody battle against Yezid at Karbala (in Iraq) on October 10, 680 AD. The sect, which was later named Hussaini Brahmin, had settled on the banks of river Euphrates. Subsequently, they returned to India and assumed various titles like Datts, Mohiyals, Tyagis and many others. They also practised an intriguing blend of Islamic and Hindu traditions. This was the first time in recent memory that the people claiming the lineage joined the Muharram rituals in this part of the country. The late Sunil Dutt, who belonged to Hussaini Brahmin sect, used to attend Muharram processions. Asked why this practice remained discontinued for decades Sharma, a practising lawyer, said: "We can say this was the fault of our fathers and grandfathers who did not teach us about this aspect of our historical and cultural heritage." Marching in the procession ahead of the band of young Shia youths injuring their chest and back with blades fixed to chains, small daggers or even razors, Upendra Prasad Shahi said, "The battle of Karbala was a war to save humanity and faith. We are proud that our ancestors, too, sacrificed their lives." Legend has it that Rahab Sidh Datt had fought on behalf of Imam Hussain in the battle of Karbala, sacrificing his seven sons in the process. Rahab was the leader of a small band of career-soldiers living near Baghdad at the time of the battle of Karbala. In his novel "Karbala", Munshi Prem Chand mentions about Hindus fighting for Imam Hussain and referred to them as descendants of Ashwastthama, son of Dronacharya. The Hussaini Brahmin sect is today a rapidly vanishing community. The younger generation of the clan are said to be abandoning their ancestral heritage, some

COLUMN: Brahmans in Karbala By Intizar Husain LITERARY NOTES The history of Husaini Brahmans, as told by Nonica Dutt, begins with ten Brahmans going to Karbala with the determination to die fighting for Imam Husain. Among them were Rahib Dutt and his seven sons who fought bravely and resolutely. With the blessings of Imam Husain they met their death in a heroic way. Rahib Dutt was the lone survivor of the battle. WITH the arrival of Muharram this year, I was reminded of an encounter I had with an unusual, intelligent girl in Delhi who asserted that she was a Husaini Brahman. I recall referring to Prem Chand’s play ‘Karbala’ in one of my addresses, which was based on a legend. The legend was about a group of eight Hindu brothers who had somehow reached Karbala determined to die fighting for the cause that Imam Husain stood for. They fought bravely and sacrificed their lives in devotion to Imam Husain. It was in this context that I was talking about Husaini Brahmans, who seemed to have vanished from the social scene in India. All of a sudden, a girl from among the audience stood up and challenged my statement. She said, ‘Here I am before you. My name is Nonica Dutt. I belong to a Husaini Brahman family.’ It was clearly a pleasant surprise for me, something like discovering a rare bird while walking through a jungle. The girl promised me an exclusive meeting to enlighten me with interesting information about the Husaini Brahmanian background of her family. But the proposed meeting kept on being postponed for one reason or the other. Finally, on the last day of my stay in Delhi, I received a call from her. ‘Let us meet now,’ she said ‘But I have no evening to spare for you. Today is the last day of my stay in your city,’ I said. ‘But I am already in the lounge and I must meet you,’ she said. So we finally had a meeting. She entered my room with two large volumes under her arm. I proposed a detailed sitting on my next visit, which was due after a month or so. ‘But in the coming months, I will not be in Delhi. I am moving to Germany and will spend four months at the Humboldt University.’ Nonica Dutt taught history at Jawahar Lal University and had been honoured with a fellowship from the Humboldt University. Hence she was on her way to Germany. ‘I,’ she said, ‘told my mother about your comments regarding Husaini Brahamans and how I introduced myself as one. To that she said, did you tell him that we don’t perform the rituals the Brahmans are obliged to perform. That we don’t go to the temples?’ ‘Should I presume from this,’ I asked, ‘that you have turned Muslim.’ ‘No, we are not Muslims,’ she exclaimed. ‘Then what are you?’ I inquired. ‘We are Husaini Brahmans,’ she said with a certain sense of pride and added, ‘Now, I will tell you about a sign each and every Husaini Brahman carries with him/her. On his/her throat s/he bears a line of cutting, which is indicative of the fact that s/he is the descendant of those Brahmans whose throats were cut in the battle of Karbala.’ Then she told me about the ritual carried out on the birth of every child in her family. She said, ‘Among Brahmans, after child birth, the ritual of Moondan is performed. In our family this ritual is performed in the name of Imam Husain.’ She then went on to tell me the historical facts. ‘I will now tell you about the history of our martyred forefathers.’ Pointing to the two books placed on the table she said, ‘our entire history is conserved within these two books. When needed, I will quote from them.’ Considering their worn out and pale pages, the books, which were written in English, seemed to be centuries old. The history of Husaini Brahmans, as told by Nonica Dutt, begins with ten Brahmans going to Karbala with the determination to die fighting for Imam Husain. Among them were Rahib Dutt and his seven sons who fought bravely and resolutely. With the blessings of Imam Husain they met their death in a heroic way. Rahib Dutt was the lone survivor of the battle. From Karbala he escaped to Kufa, where he stayed for some time. It is said that Rahib had the privilege of meeting the members of the Imam’s family after the massacre. He introduced himself by saying, ‘I am a Brahman from Hindustan.’ The reply came, ‘Now you are Husaini Brahman. We will always remember you.’ Rahib went from Kufa to Afghanistan, and from there came back to India where he stayed for a few days in Nankana. Nonica paused for a while and then spoke, ‘In the Sialkot district there is a town known as Viran Vatan. That place is our ancestral home. We are the descendants of Rahib Dutt. He had brought with him a hair of Imam Husain, which is ensconced in the Hazratbal shrine in Kashmir. She then recited a few couplets from the book she had brought along with her, in which these incidents have been recorded. ‘These couplets,’ she said, ‘are very popular among the Husaini Brahmans.’ Nonica shut the book and said ‘Let me inform you that Sunil Dutt was also a Husaini

@ Digvijay. Really great to read. It will be my pleasure if you give name of the fact books which are written before Al Bruni ( I am sure you know him very well) as history distort with the time. Karbala happened in 680 and i hope there will be some.

Well what exactly is your area of interest ? history of Islam? Early Islam? Sufism ?

@Digvijay, you are obviously well ready on this topic - thank you for sharing. Two points: It looks like the Urdu script is disappearing in India, since formal schooling does not include the Nastaliq script. But Urdu, as Hindustani, lives on... Khari boli, the Hindi dialect of Delhi and the seven Western districts of U.P., India, was declared by India, in 1950, as the standard register for Hindi (and Urdu, both were the same spoken language), to replace Brij Bhasha, the dialect of Allahabad. Kari boli,over the past 60 tears, has added more words from Sanskrit and English, and thanks to Bollywood, has developed a language of urban India that has maintained its rich context of Adab, in its cultural expression. Some even note that there are about 350 million people that speak Hinglish, arguably the language with the fastest growth in the world.

Cant thank you enough...Digvijay Singh, for these engrossing and enlightening posts. They are not only educative but are also unheard of by most of us. Brilliant !

@Digvijay, 2nd point: I agree that the Sufi brand of Islam has contributed to most of its growth, giving it the unique flavorthat you have mentioned, in the subcontinent... the density of Muslims has more to do with how long Islam (and Sufis) were around: The highest percentage of Muslims is in the Indo-Gangetic belt and Kerala (because of trade). Partition, and its population exchange, changed the composition of the border states (Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat). Muslims are sizeable in Assam (30.9%), West Bengal (25.2%), Kerala (24.7%), Uttar Pradesh (18.5%) and Bihar (16.5%): http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/religion.aspx

Hello, Is Bijapur the major Carnatic Kingdom that the English called Bednur? I have found some fascinating accounts of EIC soldiers campaigning with local Malabar Nairs in the 1730's north of Kannur (Cannanore) and they are fighting against someone they call the Rajah of Bednur. I cannot find anywhere with this name on maps, or the modern equivalent. Is Bijapur the same place as Bednur? Nick Balmer

I like Mr Kushwaha's objective commentaries, but I am not sure if the adoption of Urdu language by Pakistan was the sole reason for its virtual extermination from India. [I must say that I find the many Urdu accents originating from Pakistan (except Karachi) rather amusing and hilarious.] Urdu had its birth in India; it is an Indian language that enjoyed the official status during the later Moghul and colonial periods, but was abruptly and mercilessly removed soon after independence. I can understand the emotional reasons and madness of the times but it has left deep emotional scars on Urdu speakers - both Muslims and Hindus. Also, we must remember that Urdu is the official language of the state of Jammu and Kashmir; hence, it should not be considered a "foreign" language. In my opinion, besides human and material losses, the destruction of Urdu from U.P. and Delhi was the greatest casualty of partition. So I am pleased to see that some attempts - though half-hearted - are being made by the Government to restore Urdu as an Indian language.

@Digvijay Dear only interested in indian history in context with relation with early interaction of Caliphate and Sindh/Hind. The story written by you is good one and love to read if have some early sources. Pls Dont tell Chahnama, Shahnama, Albruni's books, Babarnama, Timur's autobiography, Indian history as told by its own historian, Feristah and wikkis. If some translation of early books that will also serve the purpose.Regards your efforts/knowhow

@Qamar Rehmani Sb:Much water has flown under the bridge since the Khadi Boli became the lingua franca of India. Yes Nastaliq is indeed on the decline in the north since it is not taught formally in schools.But it has made a come-back with a vengence in the Deccan. Urdu hinterland has shifted south in the last few years The beautiful Hindustani was Sanskritised by the Indian govt.just as Urdu was Persianised by Pakistan in official communication.But Hindi Literature is also on it's last legs now and Hindi survives only as a language in the newsprint media.Electronic media is all Hinglish now. "Change is probably the only constant"

@Qamar Rehmani Sb: Well, Tasawwuf has been around in India since at least the 13th century A.D.when Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti rehmatullah Aleh ,as per a vision to him while at Hajj in Medina, came and settled in Ajmer. When the Sufis came into contact with the Indian Yogis they discovered fascinating breathing techniques which in due course became part of Tasawwuf.When a Murshid / Shaikh imparted Zikrr (dhikrr in Arabic) to his murid it may or may not have been accompanied by these yoga techniques. For instance if he gave his murid the 'shahada' as the zikrr The Murid would inhale while reciting "La Il lah e il lal lah" but would exhale while reciting "Mohammad o Rasul Allah" The reason why this path of Tawakkul appealed most to the public at large was because Sufism is pure Ishq.It does not discriminate between idolators and non-idolators. While main-stream Islam only promises you paradise if you lead a pious life. A paradise where the most soothing thing will be a glimpse of Allah every now and then but Sufism meant experiencing HIM and HIS presence right here in your body and on planet earth ! Look while leading a virtuous life is the gospel of all religions but what happens to us after death differs very greatly in Indic (Hindu /Jain/ Sikh / Buddhist) religions as distinguished from the Abrahamanic (Judaism / Christianity / Islam) faiths. But the twain meet in Tasawwuf. The concept of 'Fana' is loosely like 'moksha'So it was bound to appeal to early adherents who were seeped in Indic faiths. The medieval period was a time as referred to as 'Bhakti-kaal' in Indian history.All the four principal Sufi sil-silas branched out during this period and it was a time of terrific spiritual enlightenment in both Hinduism and Islam. The 'qaul' and 'qawwalis' began their journey first from the Chisti dargahs and then eventually became popular at most Sufi khanqahs and were great crowd-pullers.The reference of Hindu Gods in singing and addressing the Murshid as 'Maharaja' in qawwalis meant that these orders 'arrived' in terms of being purely Indian. Even today the hazri of Hindus at Sufi shrines far out-numbers Muslims except on Urs. Indeed partition changed the demography of India.Greatest exodus was from UP and Bihar and Punjab. All three were "British India" while from "princely India" the exodus was minimal.Rajasthan and Gujarat inspite of being border states did not have much displace- ment of populations. Ahmedabad and Surat from Gujarat did because again those were "British India".History of communal tension and strife are a legacy of "British India" only. No princely state ever experienced communal or sectarian violence till date,unless explicitly fostered from without (as in Kashmir). Present large populations in the states you mentioned are also owing to later multiplication.Partition meant that the educated middle-class among Muslims emigrated en masse because they got ready jobs in Pakistan.India was largely left with either the nawabs or the really low class Muslims. The de-recognition of princes by an act of Parliament consigned them to the dust-bins of history and it meant that they moral and socio/political power was eroded forever.Absence of privvy purse meant feuding and eventual ruin. Now culture is alive and kicking always in the middle-classes only. The very high and the very low cannot really have any morality or culture /values.The former owing to boredom and the latter because of absolute necessity.The saddest part of partition is the absence of role models for the upcoming generation of Muslim middle-classes. Middle-class does not get created overnight it is a very very slow phenomenon.Mix this with social revolutions (coming of power of Castist parties like SP and JD and BSP),radicalisation of politics along religious lines ( BJP, sHIV-Sena,VHP, Bajrang Dal), pumping of petro-dollars at both the rural and urban levels through madarsas by the Wahabis,constant demand for a uniform civil code by communal parties which is percieved as personal attack on religion and way of life as prescribed in the Koran and you have a heady mixture that proclaims loudly to the un-educated Muslims that "numbers matter".

@Asad Ahmad sb: جو یہ کہے کے رکھتا کیونکر ہو رشق-ا-فارسی گفتہ-ا-غالب پڑھ کر اسے سنیں کی یونہ It is indeed un-fortunate that Urdu has today come to be associated with Muslims and is percieved as a foreign language.But primary reason for the hatred towards it is because it is the official language of Pakistan. My grand-parents from both sides were Urdu-Medium and so were my parents and parents-in-law.So it was certainly not a Muslim language.The Adab in this language rivals Persian.Pakistan has had anti-Urdu riots in the past.And yes the way they have persianised it in official communication is sad.I am in total agreement with you about the various accents in which Urdu is spoken is indeed amusing but why Pakistan even the way the Kashmiri Urdu is spoken is no less entertaining. As for casualties of partition other than language. Well the fortunes of all minorities have declined.It was British policy to keep the minorities up because they themselves were in a precious minority here. The worst hit ,but never discussed, is the plight of the courtesans (tawaifs) and eunnuchs.Both were respected and were gainfully employed in pre-independence India. After the fall of the princely order both have had to fend for themselves through alternate means.The eunnuchs were employed as nannies, ladies in waiting and harem guards and the more masculine ones were in prison service and were used in torture cells and in the army. The tawaifs nurtured and sustained north-India's only classical dance form called Kathak and semi-classical music like ghazals and classical vocal music like 'maand' in Rajasthan through-out the middle-ages.Their orders held very respectable positions in society ,particularly in Bengal and all princely states both Hindu and Muslim.

@ Manoj Bishnoi sb:Babar had got the 'Kuthba' recited in his own name.He was not subservient to the Caliphs.All Muslim rulers of Delhi prior to him were Sultans (One who rules in the name of the caliph).Hence they had practically no interaction with the Caliphs. The Shia dynasties understandaly could'nt care less about the caliphate ,as it is. I have really no knowledge about the rulers of Sindh and their interactions ,if any, with the caliphate.The auto-biographies and bio-graphies which you have mentioned too often suffer from exagerations and eulogies. Hence the accounts of visiting travellers offer a refreshing take on history which i love the most.....although they cannot be taken absolutely at face value either.

Any books on Marudhanayagam Alias Yusuf Khan

The earliest Muslim invaders of Sind were directly controlled by the Governor in Basra (as agent of the Caliph). The worst case I know of is that, on receiving an order from the Governor, Mohammad bin Qasim - the leader of the victorious Arab army - was sewn into the fresh skin of a buffalo (or perhaps a donkey), and allowed to meet a painful death in situ as the skin dried. His loyalty to his boss in Basra was so great that, on receiving the order (based on a bogus complaint), M-b-Q surrendered himself willingly and faced the consequences. This reminds me of Subbiah saying that we remember only the most grisly events in history. I don't think that liberalism had much to do with the particular sect of the rulers, although the Shia kingdoms were generaly more liberal and closer to the populace. It was more so because of the temperament of the subjects.The King of Bijapur claimed to have been the descendant of an infant prince who was smuggled out of Turkey (as they had this terrible policy of killing all potential heirs to the throne). This means that he must have been a Sunni. Moreover, Moghuls like Jahangir and Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers and Shia wives who wielded great influence. I thank Mr Kushwaha for his kind words in defence of the beautiful language Urdu. This reminds me of the Ivory- Merchant movie "In Custody" based on a novel by Anita Desai.

ONE OF THE MOST FANTASTIC POSTS TO DATE ON FACEBOOK...I STAND IN HUMBLE ADMIRATION OF YOU ALL.

Karthikeyan Thangaraj : Thanks for the suggestion...will post the book on Marudhanayagam and allied subjects.

With regard to Mr Kushwaha's comment about the use of blue color (= Firozi) in Muslim monuments, perhaps the most famous monument is the tomb of Amir Taimur ('Temurlane') in Samarkand. It is called Gur Amir (actually Gor-e-Amir). What is not commonly known is that during the invasion of India (around 1400 A.D.) and the general massacre in Delhi, Amir Taimur ordered that 300 of the best tile-makers be picked up from the environs of Delhi. These 300 artisans were taken by him to Samarkand and they did the tile work around the blue mosque, and eventually adorned his own tomb. The art of making blue tiles was not known anywhere else at that time. The tile is so good that, I am told, they are good even today.( I just checked pictures of Taimur's tomb in Samarkand on the internet. The tile work on the blue dome is marvellous:www.greatmirror.com/index.cfm?navid=864&picturesize) I use the word "Amir Taimur" since this was the name I saw engraved on one of his steel words in the Jaipur Museum.

@ Dear Digvijay sorry for the delayed reply. Got your point. As you said you don't have any details of rulers of Sindh, but i hope you must be having some details of Bapa Rawal the founder of mewar, as per my know how he fought a war with "Umayyads Caliph's army along with fugitive prince of Sindh. Any suggestion for good read? regards

@Asad Ahmed sb: Janab:Indeed Complex of Buildings including the Gur-i-Mir Mausoleum in Samarqand dates from the late 14th and early i5th century. The Muhammad Sultan madarsa named after Timur's favourite grand-son and a Khanqah with the courtyard between them with axial iwans and portal were all built in the late 14th century before the construction of the mausoleum that was later integrated into the complex. This mausoleum which was designed for Muhammad Sultan, was soon to become the final resting place of Timur and his descendants. The inner dome of the Gur-i-Mir mausoleum covers a relatively small surface area. The dome rises 26 metres majestically. The inside of the dome is decorated with gilded papier mache reliefwork.This impressive decorative technique was used in some very important buildings in the 14th century such as the dome of the Bibi Khanum mosque.The square chamber of the mausoleum alongwith it's deep axial niches, is decorated with panneling of expensive onyx and painted ornament.

@Manoj:Mewar is the oldest ruling dynasty on the planet today.It has been in existence since 566 A.D.In 734 A.D. the seventh ruler of the line was accidentally killed by Bhil tribesmen and three year old Kalbhoj became the ruler of Mewar who was known in time as Bappa Rawal. Yes he indeed had secured a convincing victory over an invading Arab general.But that Arab general was heading a Ummayad Caliph's army seems unlikely because as per my knowledge the Umayyad emirate dates from c.850 while the Umayyad Caliphate from c.950 So Bappa Rawal and the Umayyads were not contemporaries at all. Bappa thereafter had a glorious career of conquests all around, as far as Iran in the west and Afghanistan in the north.He earned several titles Hindua sooraj (Sun of Hindus), Rajguru (preceptor of princes) and Chakravarti (Lord of Kings). After a long career of political and spectacular military achievements Bappa retired from active life and became a sage and lived upto 100 years of age.

@Divijay:And there is a confusion of dates man.As per the most of the sources MBQ came in/ around 710 which make Bappa rawal contemporary to MBQ as you said he was 3years old in 734 (Source ?).And MBQ was sent by Ummayads Caliphate/emirate(As per belief). And Bappa Rawal invaded Iran as per You after 750 (May be as they were collapsing due to Abbasids) (He require some years to grow-up).Tell me some fact book on Bappa Rawal (May be an indian source that doesn't matter).

@ Digvijay it was also the period when Islamic empire touched its zenith and invaded europe and africa in east. If some one survived in the storm of Ummayads that is also after crossing the sindh (Due to its topography of rivers) it can not be that easy.If some readable is there it will be a pleasure. Regards

@Manoj: The Ummayad emirate and caliphate were seperated by a century.The Umayyads I am referring to ruled over most of central and southern Spain and north Africa including Gibralter.I do not think we are on the same plane of thought. Islam has had scores of dynasties through-out history.There are numerous Churches and cathedrals in southern Europe which have variously served as being Mosques then Churches and then mosques over time. There was no such one Muslim dynasty which was powerful during which Southern Europe was conquered, rather fortunes of several dynasties both Christian and Muslim have fluctuated over time. You may refer to "Vir Vinod" which suffers from encomiums but can serve your purpose.It is a near authentic history of Mewar.

@Digvijay Thanks will try to find out "Vir Vinod"

@Digvijy it will be helpful if you tell when it was written

@Digvijay Thanks again and get the details.

Digvijay : Thanks for your brilliant and educative comments! One question....historically speaking, how did the ultra-conservative Wahhabism come to wield so much influence over Islam and the world. Ofcourse there are many other tolerant and gentler sects in Islam itself... and how does Wahhabism pose a threat to them and other religions today?

Wahabism is an extreme form of Islam. The Wahabs and Sauds were both Bedouin tribes of what is now called Saudi Arabia.The Wahabs supported the Sauds in becoming the rulers of Arabia on the express condition that the Sauds will help propagate their(Wahabi) kind of Islam in the world when they become Kings Taliban is a manifestation of Wahabism.Osama had earlier made Sudan as his base from where circumstances got him out.So he chose the AF-PAK area of Pakhtounkhwa which includes the NWFP,Waziristan and Afghanistan. The reason for choosing were primarily four First :The Afghans in this area are fiercely belligerent whom even the British were never able to subjugate Second: the Americans had supported a rudimentary kind of Taliban and mercenaries against the Soviets during occupation of Afghanistan by the USSR. Third :The region's mountainous topography is such that it is conducive for guerrilla war-fare Fourth:The unruly nature of that society. This Talibani ideology is like Calvinism in Christianity in the middle ages and the Arya Samaj movement in Hinduism, only on a very very radical scale.Just as the former ensured that churches and cathedrals became devoid of the cross and Jesus and the latter which found rituals tiresome and unwanted in the sanatan dharma.The talibanis have reduced the role of the Prophet to that of a postman.Despite world-wide outrage the Saudis brought down the mausoleums of the family of the prophet and built a cattle market there. Even today if somebody wants to offer a prayer or read the Durood-e-Taj at Medina, the Saudi religious police turns them forcibly in the direction of Mecca and the Kaaba and does not let them recite that. There is a deep conflict which is going within Islam. These Wahabis are against any other religion.They are pumping petro-dollars into the madarsas and trying to successfully influence young impressionable minds and lead them to their kind of Islam Where education is denied to women and they are supposed to be confined to the home and hearth.Barbers and beauty saloons are anathema. There are 79 known recognised sects in Islam.It is certainly not a monolith.The wahabis consider all except themselves Kafirs.The Shias are their enemey number one and all other religions too. People of the book be damned.No singing or merry-making.Not even in the praise of the holy prophet (Pbuh) or the ahl-e-bait (a.s).And Sufis have no place in their ideology either. It is absolutely imperative that they be contained.

Thanks Digvijay....absolutely enlightening !!